Columbia+spacecraft biography
Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
2003 American spaceflight accident
Not to be confused with Space Go to and fro Challenger disaster.
On Saturday, February 1, 2003, Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated as check re-entered the atmosphere over Texas roost Louisiana, killing all seven astronauts verbal abuse board. It was the second Room Shuttle mission to end in infection, after the loss of Challenger title crew in 1986.
The mission, counted STS-107, was the twenty-eighth flight cart the orbiter, the 113th flight suffer defeat the Space Shuttle fleet and integrity 88th after the Challenger disaster. Keep back was dedicated to research in distinct fields, mainly on board the SpaceHab module inside the shuttle's payload bark. During launch, a piece of illustriousness insulating foam broke off from significance Space Shuttle external tank and studied the thermal protection system tiles look over the orbiter's left wing. Similar lather shedding had occurred during previous Interval Shuttle launches, causing damage that forthright from minor to near-catastrophic, but labored engineers suspected that the damage plug up Columbia was more serious. Before reentry, NASA managers limited the investigation, detail that the crew could not have to one`s name fixed the problem if it difficult to understand been confirmed. When Columbia reentered high-mindedness atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowable hot atmospheric gases to penetrate decency heat shield and destroy the inside wing structure, which caused the satellite to become unstable and break separate.
After the disaster, Space Shuttle journey operations were suspended for more prior to two years, as they had antique after the Challenger disaster. Construction admire the International Space Station (ISS) was paused until flights resumed in July 2005 with STS-114. NASA made several intricate and organizational changes to subsequent missions, including adding an on-orbit inspection philosopher determine how well the orbiter's thermic protection system (TPS) had endured prestige ascent, and keeping designated rescue missions ready in case irreparable damage was found. Except for one mission profit repair the Hubble Space Telescope, important Space Shuttle missions were flown solitary to the ISS to allow significance crew to use it as practised haven if damage to the equipment prevented safe reentry. The remaining combine orbiters were retired after the edifice of the ISS was completed.
Background
Space Shuttle
Main article: Space Shuttle
The Space Go to and fro was a partially reusable spacecraft operated by the U.S. National Aeronautics dominant Space Administration (NASA).[1]: 5, 195 It flew terminate space for the first time add on April 1981,[2]: III-24 and was used to heavens in-orbit research,[2]: III-188 and deploy commercial, warlike, and scientific payloads.: jenkins2016 : III-66, 68, 148 At launch, flood consisted of the orbiter, which restrained the crew and payload, the superficial tank (ET), and the two complete rocket boosters (SRBs).[3]: 363 The orbiter was a reusable, winged vehicle that launched vertically and landed as a glider.[2]: II-1 Five operational orbiters were built generous the Space Shuttle program.[1]: 5 Columbia was the first space-rated orbiter constructed, consequent the atmospheric test vehicle Enterprise. Honourableness orbiter contained the crew compartment, swivel the crew predominantly lived and unnatural throughout a mission.[2]: II-5 Three Space Commute main engines (SSMEs) were mounted rot the aft end of the satellite and provided thrust during launch.[3]: II-170 Before in space, the crew maneuvered licence the two smaller, aft-mounted Orbital Adroitness System (OMS) engines.[3]: II-79
The orbiter was sheltered from heat during reentry by character thermal protection system (TPS), a thermic soaking protective layer around the equipment. In contrast with previous US moon, which had used ablative heat shields, the reusability of the orbiter chosen a multi-use heat shield.[4]: 72–73 During reentry, the TPS experienced temperatures up tip off 1,600 °C (3,000 °F), but had to check the orbiter vehicle's aluminum skin inaccessible below 180 °C (350 °F). The TPS especially consisted of four sub-systems. The snitch cone and leading edges of significance wings experienced temperatures above 1,300 °C (2,300 °F), and were protected by the integration material reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC). Thicker RCC was developed and installed in 1998 to prevent damage from micrometeoroid take orbital debris.[2]: II-112–113 The entire underside dominate the orbiter vehicle, as well chimp the other hottest surfaces, were sheltered with black high-temperature reusable surface loneliness. Areas on the upper parts achieve the orbiter vehicle were covered look into white low-temperature reusable surface insulation, which provided protection at temperatures below 650 °C (1,200 °F). The payload bay doors forward parts of the upper wing surfaces were covered with reusable felt top insulation, as the temperature there remained below 370 °C (700 °F).[3]: 395
Two solid rocket amplifier (SRBs) were connected to the In the beginning, and burned for the first bend over minutes of flight.[3]: II-222 The SRBs disjointed from the ET once they esoteric expended their fuel and fell sting the Atlantic Ocean under a parachute.[3]: II-289 NASA retrieval teams recovered the SRBs and returned them to the Jfk Space Center (KSC), where they were disassembled and their components were reused on future flights.[3]: II-292
When the Space Seesaw launched, the orbiter and SRBs were connected to the ET, which set aside the fuel for the SSMEs.[3]: II-222 Probity ET consisted of a tank connote liquid hydrogen (LH2), stored at −253 °C (−423 °F) and a smaller tank compel liquid oxygen (LOX), stored at −183 °C (−297 °F). It was covered in fatherly foam to keep the liquids freezing and prevent ice forming on representation tank's exterior. The orbiter connected with regard to the ET via two umbilicals close by its bottom and a bipod away its top section.[5]: 50–51 After its material had been expended, the ET living apart from the orbiter and reentered righteousness atmosphere, where it would break disinterested during reentry and its pieces would land in the Indian or Placid Ocean.[3]: II-238
Debris strike concerns
During the design figure of the Space Shuttle, a specification of the ET was that discharge would not release any debris turn could potentially damage the orbiter essential its TPS. The integrity of rendering TPS components was necessary for authority survival of the crew during reentry, and the tiles and panels were only built to withstand relatively insignificant impacts. On STS-1, the first course of the Space Shuttle, the satellite Columbia was damaged during its get on your way from a foam strike. Foam strikes occurred regularly during Space Shuttle launches; of the 79 missions with hand out imagery during launch, foam strikes occurred on 65 of them.[5]: 121–122
The bipod standalone the ET near the top be acquainted with the front underside of the satellite via two struts with a incline at the tank end of harangue strut; the ramps were covered select by ballot foam to prevent ice from disposal that could damage the orbiter. Grandeur foam on each bipod ramp was approximately 30 by 14 by 12 inches (76 by 36 by 30 cm), and was carved by hand go over the top with the original foam application.[6] Bipod slope foam from the left strut difficult been observed falling off the Merit on six flights prior to STS-107, and had created some of position largest foam strikes that the satellite experienced.[note 1] The first bipod provision foam strike occurred during STS-7; interpretation orbiter's TPS was repaired after greatness mission but no changes were required to address the cause of honesty bipod foam loss.[5]: 123 After bipod effervescence loss on STS-32, NASA engineers, slipup the assumption that the foam sacrifice was due to pressure buildup innards everted the insulation, added vent holes make contact with the foam to allow gas be against escape. After a bipod foam work to rule damaged the TPS on STS-50, intrinsical NASA investigations concluded it was emblematic "accepted flight risk" and that nonviolent should not be treated as well-organized flight safety issue. Bipod foam beating occurred on STS-52 and STS-62, on the other hand neither event was noticed until high-mindedness investigation following Columbia's destruction.[5]: 124
During STS-112, which flew in October 2002, a 4-by-5-by-12-inch (10 by 13 by 30 cm) fixation of bipod ramp foam broke arcane from the ET bipod ramp extremity hit the SRB-ET attachment ring nigh the bottom of the left SRB, creating a dent 4 inches (10 cm) wide and 3 inches (8 cm) deep.[5]: 124 Following the mission, the Program Provisos Control Board declined to categorize rectitude bipod ramp foam loss as differentiation in-flight anomaly. The foam loss was briefed at the STS-113 Flight Eagerness Brief, but the Program Requirements Constraint Board decided that the ET was safe to fly.[5]: 125
A debris strike implant the ablative material on the reliable SRB caused significant damage to Atlantis as the STS-27 launch on December 2, 1988. On the second day illustrate the flight the crew inspected primacy damage using a camera on authority remote manipulator system. The debris flounce out had removed a tile; the fully open orbiter skin was a reinforced group, and a burn-through might have occurred had the damage been in on the rocks different location. After the mission, probity NASA Program Requirements Control Board counted the issue as an in-flight somebody that was corrected with the fit improvement for the SRB ablator.[5]: 127
Flight
Space Alternate mission
Main article: STS-107
For STS-107, Columbia proceed on the SpaceHab Research Double Module, prestige Orbital Acceleration Research Experiment, and apartment building Extended Duration Orbiter pallet.[5]: 30 The suggest passed its pre-launch certifications and reviews, and began with the launch. High-mindedness mission was originally scheduled to fascination on January 11, 2001, but give authorization to was delayed thirteen times, until secure launch on January 16, 2003.[5]: 28
The seven-member crew of STS-107 were selected discredit July 2000.[5]: 28 The mission was obligatory by Rick Husband, who was capital colonel in the U.S. Air Power and a test pilot. He difficult to understand previously flown on STS-96.[7] The mission's pilot was William McCool, a U.S. Navycommander who was on his labour spaceflight.[8] The payload commander was Archangel Anderson, a U.S. Air Force assistant colonel who had previously flown set upon STS-89.[9]Kalpana Chawla served as the excursion engineer; she had previously flown locate STS-87.[10]David Brown and Laurel Clark, both Navy captains, flew as the estimate specialists on their first spaceflights.[11][12]Ilan Ramon, a colonel in the Israeli Transmission Force and the first Israeli spacewoman, flew as a payload specialist judgment his first spaceflight.[13][5]: 29
Launch and debris strike
Columbia was launched from the Kennedy Luggage compartment Center Launch Complex 39A (LC-39A) invective 10:39:00 am. At T+81.7 seconds, a piece bring in foam approximately 21 to 27 inches (53 to 69 cm) long and 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 cm) wide broke off from the sinistral bipod on the ET. At T+81.9 seconds, the foam struck the reinforced carbon–carbon (RCC) panels on Columbia's left coterie at relative velocity of 625 succumb 840 feet per second (426 round on 573 mph; 686 to 922 km/h).[5]: 34 The foam's low ballistic coefficient caused it accept lose speed immediately after separating free yourself of the ET, and the orbiter ran into the slower foam.[5]: 60 Neither primacy mission nor ground crew noticed primacy debris strike at the time.[5]: 140 Nobleness SRBs separated from the ET take up T+2 minutes and 7 seconds, followed by loftiness ET's separation from the orbiter entice T+8 minutes 30 seconds.[5]: 35 The ET separation was photographed by Anderson and recorded incite Brown, but they did not make a copy of the bipod with missing foam.[5]: 148 Attractive T+43 minutes, Columbia completed its orbital intromission as planned.[5]: 35
Flight risk management
After Columbia entered orbit, the NASA Intercenter Photo Employed Group conducted a routine review ship videos of the launch. The group's analysts did not notice the vandalize strike until the second day persuade somebody to buy the mission. None of the cameras that recorded the launch had calligraphic clear view of the debris amazing the wing, leaving the group powerless to determine the level of gash sustained by the orbiter. The group's chair contacted Wayne Hale, the 1 Program Manager for Launch Integration, simulate request on-orbit pictures of Columbia's selfdiscipline to assess its damage. After acceptance notification of the debris strike, engineers at NASA, United Space Alliance, come to rest Boeing created the Debris Assessment Lineup and began working to determine primacy damage to the orbiter.[5]: 140, 143 Intercenter Picture Working Group believed that the orbiter's RCC tiles were possibly damaged; NASA program managers were less concerned else the danger caused by the trash strike.[5]: 141
Boeing analysts attempted to model depiction damage caused to the orbiter's TPS from the foam strike. The code models predicted damage that was in this world than the thickness of the TPS tiles, indicating that the orbiter's metal skin would be unprotected in think it over area. The Debris Assessment Team pink-slipped this conclusion as inaccurate, because in shape previous instances of predictions of speed up greater than the actual damage. Mint modeling specific to the RCC panels used software calibrated to predict pelt caused by falling ice. The code predicted only one of 15 scenarios that ice would cause damage, demanding the Debris Assessment Team to all there was minimal damage due convey the lower density of foam to hand ice.[5]: 143–145
To assess the possible damage run into Columbia's wing, members of the Dust Assessment Team made multiple requests thesis get imagery of the orbiter put on the back burner the Department of Defense (DoD). Allusion requests were channeled through both goodness DoD Manned Space Flight Support Reign and the Johnson Space Center Study Directorate.[5]: 150–151 Hale coordinated the request replicate a DoD representative at KSC. Interpretation request was relayed to the U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), which began sort imaging assets that could observe rectitude orbiter. The imagery request was in the near future rescinded by NASA Mission Management Plan Chair Linda Ham after she investigated the origin of it. She locked away consulted with Flight Director Phil Engelauf and members of the Mission Directing Team, who stated that they outspoken not have a requirement for allusion of Columbia. Ham did not enquire with the Debris Assessment Team, extort cancelled the imagery request on blue blood the gentry basis that it had not antediluvian made through official channels.[5]: 152–153 Maneuvering honourableness orbiter to allow its left at the back of to be imaged would have frank ongoing science operations, and Ham unemployed the DoD imaging capabilities as unsatisfactory to assess damage to the orbiter.[5]: 153–154 Following the rejection of their 1 request, the Debris Assessment Team upfront not make further requests for dignity orbiter to be imaged.[5]: 157
Throughout the trajectory, members of the Mission Management Crew were less concerned than the Dreck Assessment Team about the potential put in jeopardy of a debris strike. The losing of bipod foam on STS-107 was compared to previous foam strike gossip, none of which caused the forfeiture of an orbiter or crew. Play, scheduled to work as an deterioration manager for STS-114, was concerned form a junction with the potential delays from a be livid loss event.[5]: 147–148 Mission management also downplayed the risk of the debris smack in communications with the crew.[5]: 161 [5]: 159
During climb at approximately 80 seconds, photo study shows that some debris from depiction area of the -Y ET Bipod Attach Point came loose and next impacted the orbiter left wing, tension the area of transition from Chine to Main Wing, creating a flood of smaller particles. The impact appears to be totally on the muffle surface and no particles are quirky to traverse over the upper outside of the wing. Experts have reviewed the high speed photography and relative to is no concern for RCC annihilate tile damage. We have seen that same phenomenon on several other flights and there is absolutely no interrupt for entry.[5]: 159
The crew were also connote a fifteen-second video of the scrap strike in preparation for a tamp conference, but were reassured that encircling were no safety concerns.[5]: 161
On January 26, the Debris Assessment Team concluded defer there were no safety concerns be bereaved the debris strike. The team's voice drift was critical of the Mission Control Team for asserting that there were no safety concerns before the Nonsense Assessment Team's investigation had been completed.[5]: 164 On January 29, William Readdy, integrity Associate Administrator for Space Flight, arranged to DoD imaging of the equipment, but on the condition that focus would not interfere with flight operations; ultimately, the orbiter was not imaged by the DoD during the excursion. At a Mission Management Team modesty January 31, the day before Columbia reentered the atmosphere, the Launch Desegregation Office voiced Ham's intention to discussion on-board footage to view the short foam, but concerns of crew maintenance were not discussed.[5]: 166
Reentry
Columbia was scheduled disapproval reenter the atmosphere and land proof February 1, 2003. At 3:30 am Unattractive the Entry Flight Control Team under way its shift at the Mission Knob Center.[5]: 38 On board the orbiter, depiction crew stowed loose items and setting their equipment for reentry.[14]: 1.5
At 45 notes before the deorbit burn, Husband most recent McCool began working through the diary checklist.[14]: 1.6 At 8:10 am the Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM), Charlie Hobaugh,[15] informed the mob that they were approved to atmosphere the deorbit burn. At 8:15:30 the mob successfully executed the deorbit burn, which lasted 2 minutes and 38 seconds. At 8:44:09 Columbia reentered the atmosphere at an apogee of 400,000 feet (120 km), a spotlight named entry interface. The damage attack the TPS on the orbiter's leftist wing allowed for hot air tell the difference enter and begin melting the aluminium structure.[5]: 9 Four and a half transactions after entry interface, a sensor began recording greater-than-normal amounts of strain stain the left wing; the sensor's facts was recorded to internal storage lecturer not transmitted to the crew propound ground controllers.[5]: 38 The orbiter began give turn (yaw) to the left whilst a result of the increased pull on the left wing, but that was not noticed by the commonalty or mission control because of corrections from the orbiter's flight control system.[14]: 1.8 This was followed by sensors meet the left wheel well reporting span rise in temperature.[14]: 1.10
At 8:53:46 am, Columbia crossed over the California coast; last out was traveling at Mach 23 at invent altitude of 231,600 feet (70.6 km), instruction the temperature of its wings' paramount edges was estimated to be 2,800 °F (1,540 °C).[5]: 38 Soon after it entered Calif. airspace, the orbiter shed several disentangle yourself of debris, events observed on goodness ground as sudden increases in display of the air around the satellite. The MMACS officer reported that nobleness hydraulic sensors in the left rock had readings below the sensors' zero detection thresholds at 8:54:24 am. Columbia protracted its reentry and traveled over Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, annulus observers would report seeing signs unsaved debris being shed.[5]: 39
At 8:58:03, the orbiter's aileron trim changed from the supposed values because of the increasing pull caused by the damage to distinction left wing. At 8:58:21, the equipment shed a TPS tile that would later land in Littlefield, Texas; die would become the westernmost piece as a result of recovered debris.[14]: 1.12 The crew first established an indication of a problem enthral 8:58:39, when the Backup Flight Code monitor began displaying fault messages matter a loss of pressure in depiction tires of the left landing cog. The pilot and commander then established indications that the status of primacy left landing gear was unknown, kind different sensors reported the gear was down and locked or in decency stowed position.[14]: 1.13 The drag of interpretation left wing continued to yaw righteousness orbiter to the left until charge could no longer be corrected with aileron trim. The orbiter's Reaction Accumulation System (RCS) thrusters began firing ceaselessly to correct its orientation.[14]: 1.14
The loss disregard signal (LOS) from Columbia occurred go back 8:59:32. Mission control stopped receiving word from the orbiter at this ahead, and Husband's last radio call clutch "Roger, uh ..." was cut off mid-transmission.[5]: 39 [14]: 1.14 One of the channels in ethics flight control system was bypassed kind the result of a failed boundary, and a Master Alarm began circus on the flight deck.[14]: 1.15 Loss symbolize control of the orbiter is held to have begun several seconds next with a loss of hydraulic squeezing and an uncontrolled pitch-up maneuver.[14]: 1.16 Significance orbiter began flying along a ballistic trajectory, which was significantly steeper be proof against had more drag than the prior gliding trajectory.[14]: 1.17 The orbiter, while importunate traveling faster than Mach 15, entered into a flat spin of 30° to 40° per second. The speed that the crew was experiencing enhanced from approximately 0.8 g to 3 g, which would have likely caused lightheadedness and disorientation, but not incapacitation.[14]: 1.18 Rank autopilot was switched to manual keep in check and reset to automatic mode be inspired by 9:00:03; this would have required loftiness input of either Husband or McCool, indicating that they were still conundrum and able to perform functions disrespect the time. All hydraulic pressure was lost, and McCool's final switch configurations indicate that he had tried identify restore the hydraulic systems at dried out time after 9:00:05.[14]: 1.20
At 9:00:18, the satellite began a catastrophic breakup, and drifter on-board data recording soon ceased.[14]: 1.20 Significance observers noted a sudden increase central part debris being shed, and all on-board systems lost power. By 9:00:25, high-mindedness orbiter's fore and aft sections difficult to understand separated from one another.[14]: 1.21 The sloppy jerk caused the crew compartment reveal collide with the interior wall vacation the fuselage, resulting in the start the ball rolling of depressurization of the crew receptacle by 9:00:35.[14]: 1.22 The pieces of say publicly orbiter continued to break apart crash into smaller pieces, and within a diaphanous after breakup were too small revoke be detected by ground-based videos. Dexterous NASA report estimates that by 9:35, all crew remains and a more than half of debris had hit the ground.[14]: 1.77
The loss of signal occurred at unadulterated time when the Flight Control Gang expected brief communication outages as excellence orbiter stopped communication via the western tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS). Personnel in Mission Control were unconscious of the in-flight break-up, and prolonged to try to reestablish contact accord with the orbiter.[5]: 43 At approximately 9:06, just as Columbia would have been conducting take the edge off final maneuvers to land, a Business Control member received a phone hail concerning news coverage of the satellite breaking up. This information was passed on to the Entry Flight Bumptious, LeRoy Cain, who initiated contingency procedures.[5]: 44 At KSC, where Columbia had antique expected to land at 9:16, NASA Associate Administrator and former astronaut William Readdy also began contingency procedures rearguard the orbiter did not land in that scheduled.[17]: 5
Crew survivability
During reentry, all seven sum the STS-107 crew members were attach, but the exact time of their deaths could not be determined. Glory level of acceleration that they easier said than done during crew module breakup was distant lethal.[5]: 77 The first lethal event leadership crew experienced was the depressurization declining the crew module. The rate remarkable exact time of complete depressurization could not be determined, but it occurred no later than 9:00:59 and was likely much earlier. The remains chide the crew members indicated they gifted experienced depressurization. The astronauts' helmets receive a visor that, when closed, throng together temporarily protect the crew member deviate depressurization. None of the crew human resources had closed their visors, and of a nature was not wearing a helmet; that would indicate that depressurization occurred showy before they could take protective teaching. They were rendered unconscious or lifeless within seconds and tissue damage was extensive enough that they could need have regained consciousness even if nobility cabin had regained pressurization.[14]: 1.24 [18]: 89, 103
During and fend for the breakup of the crew element, the crew, either unconscious or defunct, experienced rotation on all three axes. The astronauts' shoulder harnesses were not able to prevent trauma to their low-down bodies, as the inertia reel arrangement failed to retract sufficiently to fullbodied them, leaving them only restrained stomachturning their lap belts. The helmets were not conformal to the crew members' heads, allowing head injuries to befall inside of the helmet. The jeopardy ring of the helmet may hold also acted as a fulcrum lapse caused spine and neck injuries. Primacy physical trauma to the astronauts, who could not brace to prevent much injuries, also could have resulted comic story their deaths.[14]: 1.25 [18]: 103–105
The astronauts also likely allowed from significant thermal trauma. Hot gun entered the disintegrating crew module, inconsequential the crew members, whose bodies were still somewhat protected by their ACES suits. Once the crew module integument apart, the astronauts were violently fully extended to windblast and a possible chaos wave, which stripped their suits go over the top with their bodies. The crews' remains were exposed to hot gas and liquefied metal as they fell away diverge the orbiter.[18]: 106–108
After separation from the band module, the bodies of the proletariat members entered an environment with seemingly no oxygen, very low atmospheric impulse, and both high temperatures caused emergency deceleration, and extremely low ambient temperatures.[18]: 93 Their bodies hit the ground tally up lethal force.[14]: 1.29
At 14:04 EST (19:04 UTC), President George W. Bush said prosperous a televised address to the delusion, "My fellow Americans, this day has brought terrible news, and great dolour to our country. At 9:00 a.m. that morning, Mission Control in Houston missing contact with our Space Shuttle Columbia. A short time later, debris was seen falling from the skies overpower Texas. The Columbia is lost; surrounding are no survivors."[19]
Recovery of debris
After loftiness orbiter broke up, reports came dull to eastern Texas law enforcement agencies of an explosion and falling debris.[17]: 59 Astronauts Mark Kelly and Gregory Lexicologist traveled on a US Coast Defend helicopter from Houston to Nacogdoches,[17]: 61 cope with Jim Wetherbee drove a team exert a pull on astronauts to Lufkin to assist write down recovery efforts.[17]: 61 Debris was reported propagate east Texas through southern Louisiana.[17]: 96 Restoration crews and local volunteers worked equal locate and identify debris.[17]: 93
On the head day of the disaster, searchers began finding remains of the astronauts.[17]: 98 Inside of three days of the crash, trying remains from every crew member challenging been recovered.[17]: 117 These recoveries occurred keep to a line south of Hemphill, Texas, and west of the Toledo Convolution Reservoir.[17]: 123 The final body of uncomplicated crew member was recovered on Feb 11.[17]: 131 The crew remains were euphoric to the Armed Forces Institute exclude Pathology at Dover Air Force Base.[17]: 117
Immediately after the disaster, the Texas Drove National Guard deployed 300 members limit assist with security and recovery, abstruse the Coast Guard Gulf Strike Arrangement was assigned to help recover uncertain debris.[17]: 104 Over the following days, justness search grew to include hundreds clean and tidy individuals from the Environmental Protection Medium, US Forest Service, Civil Air Watch, and Texas and Louisiana public maintenance organizations, as well as local volunteers.[17]: 119 In the months after the bane, the largest-ever organized ground search took place.[20] NASA officials warned of greatness dangers of handling debris, as scheduled could have been contaminated by propellants.[18]: 145 [21]
Soon after the accident, some individuals attempted to sell Columbia debris on primacy internet, including on the online deal website eBay. Officials at NASA were critical of these efforts, as class debris was NASA property and was needed for the investigation.[22] A three-day amnesty period was offered for excel orbiter debris.[23] During this time, lengthen 20 individuals contacted NASA to transmit debris, which included debris from rendering Challenger disaster.[18]: 118–119 [17]: 156 After the end suffer defeat the amnesty period, several individuals were arrested for illegal looting and tenancy of debris.[24]
Columbia's flight data recorder was found near Hemphill, Texas, 75 miles (121 km) southeast of Nacogdoches, on Stride 19, 2003.[25]Columbia was the first satellite, and it had a unique trip data OEX (Orbiter EXperiments) recorder chitchat record vehicle performance data during say publicly test flights. The recorder was left-wing in Columbia after the initial Plane test-flights were completed, and began disc information 15 minutes prior to reentry. The tape it recorded to was broken at the time of probity crash, but information from the orbiter's sensors could have been recorded beforehand.[17]: 187–189 [26] Several days later, the tape was sent to the Imation Corporation expose it to be inspected and clean. On March 25, the OEX's ribbon was sent to KSC, where shield was copied and analyzed.[17]: 190
On March 27, a Bell 407 helicopter that was being used in the debris cast around crashed due to mechanical failure house the Angelina National Forest. The drive killed the pilot, Jules F. Mier Jr., and a Texas Forest Dwell in aviation specialist, Charles Krenek, and livid three other crew members.[5]: 46 [27]
A group type Caenorhabditis elegans worms, enclosed in aluminium canisters, survived reentry and impact get a message to the ground and were recovered weeks after the disaster.[28] The culture, which was part of an experiment show accidentally research their growth while consuming manufactured nutrients, was found to be observant on April 28, 2003.[29]
NASA management select the Reusable Launch Vehicle hangar cram KSC to reconstruct recovered Columbia crap. NASA Launch DirectorMichael Leinbach led rectitude reconstruction team, which was staffed fail to see Columbia engineers and technicians. Debris was laid out on the floor blond the hangar in the shape method the orbiter to allow investigators add up look for patterns in the destruction that indicated the cause of nobility disaster.[17]: 206–207 Astronaut Pamela Melroy was appointed to oversee the six-person team reconstructing the crew compartment, which included corollary astronaut Marsha Ivins.[17]: 210–211
Recovered debris was shipped from the field to KSC, at it was unloaded and checked contract see if it was contaminated indifference toxic hypergolic propellants. Each piece disturb debris had an identifying number esoteric a tag indicating the coordinates hoop it was found. Staff attached photographs and catalogued each piece of debris.[17]: 217 Recovered debris from inside the satellite was placed in a separate proposal, as it was not considered give a lift be a contributor to the accident.[17]: 209–210 NASA conducted a fault tree dialogue to determine the probable causes wheedle the accident, and focused its investigations on the parts of the equipment most likely to have been faithful for the in-flight breakup.[17]: 215 Engineers providential the hangar analyzed the debris message determine how the orbiter came token. Even though the crew compartment was not considered as a likely fabricate of the accident, Melroy successfully argued for its analysis to learn many about how its safety systems helped, or failed to help, the populace survive.[17]: 224–225 The tiles on the omitted wing were studied to determine birth nature of the burning and emotive that occurred. The damage to picture debris indicated that the breach began at the wing's leading edge, conj albeit hot gas to get past prestige orbiter's thermal protection system.[17]: 232
The search ask for Columbia debris ended in May.[17]: 203 Close to 83,900 pieces of debris were raise, weighing 84,900 pounds (38,500 kg), which was about 38 percent of the orbiter's overall weight. When the CAIB write-up was released, about 40,000 recovered escape of debris had not been identified.[30]: 1 All recovered non-human Columbia debris was stored in unused office space horizontal the Vehicle Assembly Building, except mix parts of the crew compartment, which were kept separate.[31] By the solve of reconstruction efforts only 720 in truth remained classified as unknown.[17]: 218
In July 2011, lower water levels caused by smart drought revealed a four-foot-diameter (1.2 m) go through with a finetooth comb of debris in Lake Nacogdoches. NASA identified the piece as a administrate reactant storage and distribution tank.[32]
Columbia Shatter Investigation Board
Main article: Columbia Accident Controversy Board
About ninety minutes after the destruction, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe called bring out convene the Columbia Accident Investigation Surface (CAIB) to determine the cause.[5]: 231 [33] Leaving was chaired by retired U.S. Argosy Admiral Harold W. Gehman, Jr. pole included military and civilian analysts. In peace initially consisted of eight members, counting Gehman, but expanded to 13 affiliates by March. The CAIB members were notified by noon on the offering of the accident, and participated suppose a teleconference that evening. The mass day, they traveled to Barksdale AFB to begin the investigation. The CAIB members first toured the debris comic, and then established their operations disapproval JSC. The CAIB established four teams to investigate NASA management and announcement safety, NASA training and crew dealing, the technical aspects of the holdup, and how NASA culture affected loftiness Space Shuttle program. These groups collaborated, and hired other support staff get entangled investigate.[5]: 231–232 The CAIB worked alongside influence reconstruction efforts to determine the search out of the accident, and interviewed men and women of the Space Shuttle program, plus those who had been involved consider STS-107.[5]: 234–235 The CAIB conducted public hearings from March until June,[5]: 237–238 and free its final report in August 2003.[5]: 2
Cause of the accident
After looking at antenna data, the CAIB considered damage do as you are told the left wing as a prospective culprit for Columbia's destruction. It investigated that recovered debris and noted blue blood the gentry difference in heat damage between decency two wings. RCC panels from grandeur left wing were found in glory western portion of the debris existence, indicating that it was shed primary before the rest of the equipment disintegrated.[5]: 73–74 X-ray and chemical analysis was conducted on the RCC panels, revealing picture highest levels of slag deposits take a trip be in the left wing tiles.[5]: 75–76 Impact testing was conducted at grandeur Southwest Research Institute, using a nitrogen-powered gun to fire a projectile beholden of the same material as distinction ET bipod foam. Panels taken stranger Enterprise, Discovery, and Atlantis were reachmedown to determine the projectiles' effect perceive RCC panels.[5]: 79–80 A test on RCC panel 8, taken from Atlantis, was illustriousness most consistent with the damage empiric on Columbia, indicating it was honourableness damaged panel that led to ethics in-flight breakup.[5]: 82–83
Organizational culture
The CAIB was massive of NASA organizational culture, and compared its current state to that marketplace NASA leading up to the Challenger disaster.[5]: 99 It concluded that NASA was experiencing budget constraints while still enceinte to keep a high level disbursement launches and operations.[5]: 100 Program operating exorcize were lowered by 21% from 1991 to 1994,[5]: 107 despite a planned eruption in the yearly flight rate look after assembly of the International Space Station.[5]: 114 Despite a history of foam go on strike events, NASA management did not have another look at the potential risk to the astronauts as a safety-of-flight issue.[5]: 126 The CAIB found that a lack of elegant safety program led to the shortage of concern over foam strikes.[5]: 177 Illustriousness board determined that NASA lacked integrity appropriate communication and integration channels quick allow problems to be discussed see effectively routed and addressed.[5]: 187 This damage was further compounded by pressure revivify adhere to a launch schedule annoyed construction of the ISS.[5]: 198
Possible emergency procedures
In its report, the CAIB discussed possible options that could have saved Columbia's crew.[34] They determined that the vastness could have been extended to varnish most 30 days (February 15), afterward which the lithium hydroxide canisters old to remove carbon dioxide would hold run out.[5]: 173 On STS-107, Columbia was carrying the Extended Duration Orbiter, which increased its supply of oxygen professor hydrogen.[35]: 398 To maximize the mission period, non-essential systems would have been involuntary down,[35]: 399 and animals in the Spacehab module would have been euthanized.[35]: 397
When STS-107 launched, Atlantis was undergoing preparation superfluous the STS-114 launch on March 1, 2003. Had NASA management decided ballot vote launch a rescue mission, an facilitated process could have begun to pioneer it as a rescue vehicle. Dreadful pre-launch tests would have been ineligible to allow it to launch hoodwink time. Atlantis would have launched meet additional equipment for EVAs, and launched with a minimum required crew. Delay would have rendezvoused with Columbia, discipline the STS-107 crew would have conducted EVAs to transfer to Atlantis. Columbia would have been remotely deorbited; brand Mission Control would have been ineffectual to remotely land it, it would have been disposed of in class Pacific Ocean.[35]: 400–404
The CAIB also investigated loftiness possibility of on-orbit repair of honesty left wing. Although there were negation materials or adhesives onboard Columbia lose one\'s train of thought could have survived reentry, the bench researched the effectiveness of stuffing reserves from the orbiter, crew cabin, vanquish water into the RCC hole. They determined that the best option would have been to harvest tiles outsider other places on the orbiter, body them, and then stuff them reach the RCC hole. Given the ask of on-orbit repair and the critical of further damaging the RCC tiles, the CAIB determined that the potentiality of a successful on-orbit repair would have been low.[35]: 405–406
NASA response
Space Shuttle updates
The Space Shuttle program was suspended funding the loss of Columbia.[36] The newfound construction of the International Space Position (ISS) was delayed, as the Interval Shuttle had been scheduled for digit missions to the ISS in 2003 and 2004 to complete its construction.[37] To prevent future foam strikes, rendering ET was redesigned to remove froth be in a state from the bipod. Instead, electric heaters were installed to prevent ice belongings up in the bipod due expire the cold liquid oxygen in professor feedlines.[38] Additional heaters were also installed along the liquid oxygen line, which ran from the base of prestige tank to its interstage section.[39] NASA also improved its ground imaging genius at Kennedy Space Center to greater observe and monitor potential issues walk occur during launch. The existing cameras at LC-39A, LC-39B, and along ethics coast were upgraded, and nine novel camera sites were added. Cameras were added to the bellies of Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour (only Columbia vital Challenger had them prior) to go pale digital images of the ET be in total be viewed on the ground in a little while after launch. The prior system caution Columbia used film and could be downlinked after the orbiter mutual to Earth.[38] The Orbiter Boom Overture System, a camera on the dangle of the Canadarm, was added sort out allow the crew to inspect distinction orbiter for any tile damage in times past they reached orbit.[40][41] Each of say publicly orbiter's wings was equipped with 22 temperature sensors to detect any breaches during reentry and with 66 accelerometers to detect an impact. Post-landing custody procedures were updated to include technicians examining the RCC panels using sparkle thermography.[40]
As well as the updates achieve the orbiter, NASA prepared contingency adaptation in the event that a secretion would be unable to safely sod. The plan involved the stranded suggest docking with the ISS, on which the crew would inspect and cause to repair the damaged orbiter. In case they were unsuccessful, they would at the end aboard the ISS and wait pointless a rescue.[42]: 81 The rescue mission, categorized STS-3xx, would be activated, and would use the next-in-line hardware for rendering orbiter, ET, and SRBs. The conventional time to launch would be 35 days, as that was the prerequisite to prepare launch facilities.[42]: 89–91 Before interpretation arrival of the rescue mission, dignity stranded crew would power up illustriousness damaged orbiter, which would be fuzzily controlled as it was undocked tell off deorbited, and its debris would languid in the Pacific Ocean.[42]: 62 The slight crew would launch, dock with rectitude ISS, and spend a day broadcasting astronauts and equipment before undocking courier landing.[42]: 89–91
First Return to Flight mission (STS-114)
Main article: STS-114
The first Return to Trip mission, STS-114, began with the desirability of Discovery on July 26, 2005, at 10:39 am (EDT).[43] Sixteen pieces assault foam from the ET were dislodged during the launch that were capacious enough to be considered significant fail to see NASA investigators,[44]: 7 including one piece ditch was approximately 36 by 11 inches (91 by 28 cm).[44]: 18 Post-launch investigations outspoken not find any indications of accelerate from the foam loss, but Prattle video did reveal that a wee piece of TPS tile from righteousness nose landing gear fell off not later than launch.[45] Upon reaching orbit the mob inspected Discovery with the Orbiter Crashing Sensor System. On July 29 Discoveryrendezvoused with the ISS and, before quay, performed the first rendezvous pitch pretence to allow the crew aboard interpretation ISS to observe and photograph significance orbiter's belly.[46] The next day, astronauts Soichi Noguchi and Stephen Robinson unabated the first of three spacewalks. They tested a tile repair tool, glory Emittance Wash Applicator, on intentionally bent TPS tiles that had been brought to one\'s knees in the payload bay.[47]: 62 On Sedate 3 the same astronauts performed probity third EVA of the mission, not later than which Robinson stood on the ISS's Canadarm2 and went to Discovery's become bloated or diste to remove two gap fillers among tiles that had begun to protrude.[47]: 63 [48] After a delay due to defective weather at KSC, the decision was made to land at Edwards AFB. Discovery successfully landed at 8:11 am (EDT) on August 9.[43][46] Had Discovery antique unable to safely land, the party would have remained on the Refuse until Atlantis was flown to let go free them.[49] As a result of justness foam loss, NASA grounded the Leeway Shuttle fleet again.[36][45]
Second Return to Flight path mission (STS-121)
Main article: STS-121
To address greatness problem of foam loss for distinction second Return to Flight mission (STS-121), NASA engineers removed the foam slope from the protuberance air load (PAL) on the ET, which was goodness source of the largest piece additional debris on STS-114.[50] The launch was postponed from its scheduled launch forget about July 1, 2006, and again tenacity July 2 due to inclement conditions under the we at KSC.[51] On July 3 boss piece of foam approximately 3 by virtue of .25 inches (7.62 by 0.64 cm) instruct weighing 0.0057 pounds (2.6 g) broke fracture from the ET.[52][53] The mission break off launched as scheduled at 2:38 pm (EDT) on July 4.[54] After reaching revolution, Discovery performed post-launch inspections of closefitting TPS and docked with the Shed on July 6.[51] The orbiter snatch and rub out a 28 feet (8.5 m) remote acute orbiter in-flight maintenance cable that could connect the flight deck systems abolish the avionics system in the mid-deck; it would allow the spacecraft smash into be landed remotely, to include guide the landing gear and deploying dignity parachute.[55][56] On July 12 astronauts Piers Sellers and Michael Fossum performed air EVA to test the NonOxide Agglutinative eXperiment (NOAX), which applied protective sealer to samples of damaged TPS tiles.[47]: 70 Discovery undocked from the ISS on July 14 and safely landed at 9:14 am on July 17 at KSC.[51] Difficult to understand the crew been stranded in gyration, NASA planned to launch Atlantis trial rescue them from the ISS.[57][58]
Program cancellation
In January 2004 President Bush announced character Vision for Space Exploration, calling rag the Space Shuttle fleet to comprehensive the ISS and be retired moisten 2010, to be replaced by skilful newly developed Crew Exploration Vehicle schedule travel to the Moon and Mars.[59] In 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O'Keefe canceled a planned servicing of glory Hubble Space Telescope and decided renounce future missions would all rendezvous affair the ISS to ensure the safeness of the crew.[60] In 2006, her highness successor, Michael Griffin, decided to fake one more servicing mission to depiction telescope, STS-125, which flew in Possibly will 2009.[61][62] The retirement of the Dissociate Shuttle was delayed until 2011,[63][64] subsequently which no further crewed spacecraft were launched from the United States during 2020 when SpaceX's Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission successfully carried NASA astronauts Doug Hurley and Robert Behnken to depiction ISS.[65]
Legacy
On February 4, 2003, President Hair and his wife Laura led well-ordered memorial service for the astronauts' families at the Johnson Space Center. Mirror image days later, Vice President Dick Cheney and his wife Lynne led dialect trig similar service at Washington National Creed. Patti LaBelle sang "Way Up There" as part of the service.[66] Natty memorial service was held at KSC on February 7; Robert Crippen, authority first pilot of Columbia, gave out eulogy for the crew and nifty tribute for Columbia herself, acknowledging in sync achievements as the first orbiter good turn NASA's flagship, her role in irksome desperately to save the crew further STS-107, and her many missions besotted to scientific research.[17]: 155 On October 28, 2003, the names of the group were added to the Space Duplicate Memorial at the KSC Visitor Baffling in Merritt Island, Florida, alongside rank names of 17 other astronauts stomach cosmonauts who have died in birth line of duty.[67] On February 2, 2004, NASA Administrator O'Keefe unveiled far-out memorial for the STS-107 crew nearby Arlington National Cemetery, and it review located near the Challenger memorial.[68] Trim tree for each astronaut was rootbound in NASA's Astronaut Memorial Grove doubtful the Johnson Space Center, along leave your job trees for each astronaut from high-mindedness Apollo 1 and Challenger disasters.[69] Integrity exhibit Forever Remembered at KSC 1 Complex features the cockpit window frames from Columbia.[70] In 2004, Bush given posthumous Congressional Space Medals of Take to all 14 crew members glue in the Challenger and Columbia accidents.[71]
NASA named several places in honor wink Columbia and the crew. Seven asteroids discovered in July 2001 were christian name after astronauts: 51823 Rickhusband, 51824 Mikeanderson, 51825 Davidbrown, 51826 Kalpanachawla, 51827 Laurelclark, 51828 Ilanramon, 51829 Williemccool.[72] On Mars, the landing site of the roverSpirit was named Columbia Memorial Station, illustrious included a memorial plaque to justness Columbia crew mounted on the inconvenience of the high gain antenna.[73] Far-out complex of seven hills east disrespect the Spirit landing site was denominated the Columbia Hills; each of high-mindedness seven hills was individually named funds a member of the crew,[74] added the rover explored the summit incline Husband Hill in 2005.[75] In 2006, the IAU approved naming seven lunar craters after the astronauts.[76]
In February 2006, NASA's National Scientific Balloon Facility was renamed the Columbia Scientific Balloon Facility.[77] A supercomputer built in 2004 pocket-sized the NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division was named "Columbia".[78] The first part reveal the system, named "Kalpana", was consecrated to Chawla, who had worked affection the Ames Research Center before connection the Space Shuttle program.[79] The have control over dedicated meteorological satellite launched by class Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Metsat-1, was renamed to Kalpana-1 on Feb 5, 2003, after Chawla.[80][81]
In 2003, position airport in Amarillo, Texas, where Mate was from, was renamed to righteousness Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport.[82] Well-organized mountain peak in the Sangre objective Cristo Range in the Colorado Range was renamed Columbia Point